Self-esteem is how a person evaluates their own worth. It differs from confidence, which usually relates to a specific task. Research suggests self-esteem shifts across life and is shaped by experiences and relationships. The questions below run from definitions to when professional support makes sense.
- What is self-esteem?
- How is self-esteem different from confidence and self-concept?
- What factors shape self-esteem?
- Does self-esteem change with age?
- What are the effects of low self-esteem?
- Can self-esteem be improved?
- Does social media affect self-esteem?
- When should someone seek professional help?
- Sources
What is self-esteem?
Self-esteem is a person's overall opinion of their own worth, including how much they value and accept themselves. The American Psychological Association's dictionary entry frames it as how positively a person views the qualities that make up their self-concept, rather than a judgment about one skill or situation.
Psychologists usually measure it with short questionnaires. The best known is the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, introduced by sociologist Morris Rosenberg in 1965 in his book on adolescent self-image. It asks people to rate general statements about self-worth. Self-esteem is not a fixed trait; scores can move up or down over time. For a fuller treatment, read a fuller definition of self-esteem.
How is self-esteem different from confidence and self-concept?
Self-esteem is a global sense of worth, while confidence is usually tied to a task, self-concept is the set of beliefs a person holds about who they are, and self-efficacy is the belief that one can carry out a particular action.
The table below sets out self-esteem vs confidence and the two neighboring terms.
| Term | In one sentence | Example | Source |
|---|---|---|---|
| Self-esteem | Overall evaluation of one's own worth | "I am a person worth respecting, even after a bad day." | APA Dictionary of Psychology |
| Self-concept | The beliefs and descriptions a person holds about who they are | "I am a careful, curious, somewhat shy person." | General usage in personality psychology |
| Self-efficacy | Belief in one's ability to succeed at a specific action | "I can learn to give a short presentation." | Bandura (1977), Psychological Review |
| Confidence | Everyday term for trust in one's skill in a given situation | "I feel sure of myself when I drive on the highway." | General usage; no single technical definition |
A person can have high confidence in a skill, such as public speaking, and still hold a low opinion of their worth, or the reverse. The terms overlap in daily speech, which is why they are often mixed up.
What factors shape self-esteem?
Self-esteem is shaped by a mix of early experiences, relationships, achievements, and the comparisons people make with others. Studies report associations between these factors and self-esteem, but association is not the same as cause.
For many people, warm and consistent relationships in childhood go along with a steadier sense of worth later on. Success at school, work, or in hobbies, feedback from friends and family, and comparison with peers also play a part. Personality traits and life events, such as moving, losing a job, or changing schools, appear in the research too. The factors that influence self-esteem are covered in more detail in a separate guide.
Does self-esteem change with age?
Yes, on average. A 2018 meta-analysis by Orth, Erol, and Luciano in Psychological Bulletin pooled 331 longitudinal samples with 164,868 participants aged 4 to 94 (DOI 10.1037/bul0000161). Average self-esteem rose in childhood, climbed through adulthood, peaked at about age 60, held steady until about 70, and then declined, more steeply in very old age.
Averages hide a lot. Two people of the same age can follow very different paths, and life events such as a new job, a move, or a loss can shift how someone sees themselves at any point. A group trend does not predict what will happen to one person. The guide to self-esteem across the lifespan walks through each stage.
What are the effects of low self-esteem?
Low self-esteem is associated with somewhat worse outcomes in relationships, school, work, and mental and physical health. A 2022 review by Orth and Robins in American Psychologist found that higher self-esteem predicted better outcomes in all six areas it examined, with an average effect of about .10, a small one (DOI 10.1037/amp0000922).
The link can also run the other way: a stressful period can lower self-esteem, which then makes problems feel heavier. Low self-esteem is not a diagnosis, and having it does not mean a person has a mental health condition. A closer look at the effects of low self-esteem lays out what studies have and have not found.
Can self-esteem be improved?
For many people, yes, though results differ from person to person. A 2018 meta-analysis of cognitive behavioral therapy built on the Fennell model of low self-esteem pooled seven studies and found improved self-reported self-esteem afterward. Effects were larger for weekly sessions (1.12) than for one-day workshops (0.34) (DOI 10.1016/j.psychres.2018.06.025).
That evidence is for structured counseling, and the review relied on self-report. Everyday habits such as setting small, realistic goals, questioning harsh self-talk, and spending time with supportive people are widely discussed but come with no such guarantee. A longer overview of ways to improve self-esteem describes the options without promising outcomes.
Research is mixed on whether social media lowers self-esteem. An umbrella review by Patti Valkenburg in Current Opinion in Psychology (2022) synthesized 27 reviews and meta-analyses published from 2019 to August 2021 and found conflicting conclusions about well-being, especially for time spent on social media and for active versus passive use (DOI 10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.12.006).
Because of that split, hours online alone say little about any one person's self-esteem. How someone uses a platform is the question researchers keep returning to. The article on self-esteem and social media goes through the evidence in more depth.
When should someone seek professional help?
Someone may want to talk to a licensed mental health professional when low mood lasts for weeks or interferes with daily life, such as work, school, sleep, or relationships. A primary care provider can also be a first point of contact.
In the United States, anyone in emotional distress or suicidal crisis can call or text 988 to reach the 988 Suicide & Crisis Lifeline, which offers free, confidential support around the clock, according to the National Institute of Mental Health. In a life-threatening emergency, call 911 or go to the nearest emergency room.
Sources
- American Psychological Association. APA Dictionary of Psychology, entry "self-esteem."
- Orth, U., Erol, R. Y., & Luciano, E. C. (2018). Development of self-esteem from age 4 to 94 years: A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin.
- Orth, U., & Robins, R. W. (2022). Is high self-esteem beneficial? Revisiting a classic question. American Psychologist.
- Kolubinski, D. C., et al. (2018). A systematic review and meta-analysis of CBT interventions based on the Fennell model of low self-esteem. Psychiatry Research.
- Valkenburg, P. M. (2022). Social media use and well-being: What we know and what we need to know. Current Opinion in Psychology.
- National Institute of Mental Health. "Find Help."
- Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Princeton University Press.
- Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review.
This page offers general information, not medical or psychological advice; for personal concerns, talk with a licensed professional.
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